What distinguishes the witness of the prophets and the apostles, so that it can have this significance for the existence of the congregation and its proclamation to the world? After all, they were men fallible as we are, children of their time as we are of ours, and their spiritual horizon was as limited as ours—in significant ways, even more limited than ours. Whoever enjoys that sort of thing can again and again demonstrate that their natural science, conception of the world, and also to a great extent their morality cannot be binding for us. They told all sorts of sagas and legends and at least made free use of all kinds of mythological material. In many things they said—and in some important propositions—they contradicted each other. With few exceptions they were not remarkable theologians. They have only their election and calling to commend them. But this counts! Their many-sided testimony has, in its own way and in its own place, one and the same center, subject and content: Jesus of Nazareth,… (Barth, Karl, p.59, ‘God Here and Now’,2006)

This morning, I spent some time online investigating Minoan religious belief and rituals, and came across The Dance of the Labyrinth (read the whole thing because it’s cool), that mentioned the Icelandic name for Labyrinth, Volundarhus, that means ‘Wayland’s House’, Wayland (Volund), being the lame smith from Germanic/Nordic mythology.

According to the Myth, Wayland was held prisoner in his own house, until he eventually managed to avenge himself, and flew away in his ex-wife’s swan suit. This leads to an interesting parallel to Daedalus the craftsman who flew to freedom, with his son Icarus, after both were imprisoned within the labyrinth (that he himself devised). I first noticed the parallel a month ago after reading Walking as Art.

Recently I also started following a thread at Mythography Forums concerning the Greek smith god Hephaestus, that began to investigate craftsman gods in general, including their association with labyrinths (the honey bee dance stuff I found especially fascinating).

Earlier on, I came across another great article called The Sun at Midnight – Metalworking and the Sacred Smith.

It’s an interesting area of research, which can take off in so many different directions. Recently I wrote a short entry entitled In the Footsteps of Recreation, where I focus upon the lame Chinese emperor Yu, who learned how to control the floods by imitating a ritual (shamanic and limping) dance performed by birds, reminiscent of Theseus’s Crane dance, that imitated the complexities of the labyrinth.

I’m really taken by the idea of assuming bird form (like a Shaman) to overcome the labyrinth, and I’m keeping my eye open for any more similar and related myths.

Right, where was I? ah, yes, Minoan religion and ritual….

I took these photographs in 2000 at the British Museum. Unfortunately, the photo quality isn’t too good, because I was using a disposable camera without a flash. I’ve tried to enhance then a bit in an image editor. Luckily I took some notes, so I can tell you a bit about them.

This is a panel depicting King Ashurnasirpal, flanked by eagle-headed protective spirits. It comes (as do the rest of these exhibits) from the North-West palace of Nimrud in Assyria, and dates somewhere between 865-860 B.C.

This panel, along with another, stood at the head of a room. The surviving walls of which were otherwize panelled entirely with eagle-headed spirits and sacred trees.

Eagle-headed protective spirit between saced trees. The sacred trees were completed on adjoining panels.

Four-winged protective spirit, holding a mace, guarding one of the doors to the royal throne room.

In this panel, king Ashurnasirpal appears twice, dressed in ritual robes and holding the mace symbolising authority. In front of him there is a sacred tree possibly symbolising life, and he makes a gesture of worship to a god in a winged mask. The god, who may be the sun god Shamash, has a ring in one hand; an ancient Mesopotamian symbol of god-given kingship. Protective spirits are on either side, placed behind the royal throne.

Protective spirit with branch and carrying a deer. Guarded one of the doors to the royal thone room.

Sacred Tree

Palace of Nimrud links

king Ashurnasirpal and the Northwest Palace at Nimrud
Nimrud Palace Reliefs at the British Museum

The wound motif of the mythological victim assumes many forms, ranging from the violently horrific portrayals of castration and dismemberment, as suffered by Osiris, to more subtle symbolic forms of death, such as induced sleep and the curse of blindness, both inflicted upon the Cyclops Polyphemus. Occasionally the mythological victim will enter the realm of death directly in a form of underworld/otherworld or oceanic journey, like Odysseus, where the dividing line between death and life – as in the motif of the sleeping god – tends to become blurred. This state between death and life is also evident in the motif of the maimed god, who remains alive, yet perpetually suffers from an incurable wound, as in the case of the grail/fisher King from Arthurian romance.

Typically, the fate of the mythological victim is bound up in some form of physical injury. The three most prominent wound motifs in this category, are dismemberment (Osiris, Zagreus, Purusha, Orpheus, Pangu, Ymir, Avalokiteshvara), castration (Shiva, Attis, Adonis, Osiris, Izanagi, Ouranos), and an injury to the foot (Bran, seed of the woman ‘Genesis 3:15′, Philoctetes, Centaur Cheiron, Centaur Pholus, Talos, Krishna, Diarmaid, Achilles, Ra), specifically to the heel.

The Mysteries of Mithras

Those initiated into the mysteries of Mithras achieved cosmic release by way of the revolving planets, which appear in Mithraic Iconography, each planet (Saturn, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Moon, and Sun) according to Celsus (Origen: Against Celcus 6:22), corresponding with a ladder of seven celestial gateways, surmounted by an eighth gateway, most likely transcendent of the celestial realm. The so-called Mithras Liturgy mentions that the pathway of the visible gods (i.e: the planets), is illuminated by the disc of the sun, the emblem of the indestructible god and gateway to the realm of the gods beyond (545-625). According to Jerome (Letter ‘to Laeta’ 107:2), there were eight stages of initiation (raven, bridegroom, soldier, lion, Perseus, sun, Crab, and father), presumably corresponding with the eight gateways.

In antiquity, numerous writers claim that the mysteries of Mithras took place within a cave and the god himself was born from a rock. Mithraic temples, called Mithraea (known collectively as Mithraeum), were windowless underground structures, evidently imitative of natural caves, and particularly of the mythological cave that enclosed the cosmos. In certain Mithraea, pumex stone was used to imitate the natural appearance of a cave, stars were painted on the ceiling, and the use of artificial light to replicate the heavenly bodies have all served to create the illusion of the celestial realm, according to Mithraic cosmology.

Statues depict Mithras birth, fully grown, from a rock, sometimes enclosed by a coiled serpent, reminiscent of the Orphic creation myth of the birth of the double-sexed being Phanes (Meaning ‘light’, also known as Protogonus ‘firstborn’, among other names), hatched from a serpent entwined cosmic egg. The rock-born motif appears to represent a paradoxical double truth, that Mithras birth within the cosmos and the cosmic creation itself were simultaneous events.

Also associated with the Mithraic cult was the statue of a lion-headed figure (leontocephaline), whose body was entwined by a spiraling serpent. This statue, I believe, represents both the lunar-temporal reality, corresponding with the revolving (serpentine) planetary path leading to cosmic release, and the solar-eternal reality, corresponding with the eighth gate mentioned by Celcus, as the indestructible lion’s head. The serpent also corresponds with the image of the Ouroboros that encircles the world, that in Greek mythology was Oceanus, who himself appears frequently in Mithraic iconography.

The central mystery involved Mithras slaying a bull within a cosmic cave. Leading up to this image of cosmic sacrifice is a sequence of iconic images of Mithras capturing and wrestling the bull. The bull slaying scene itself, known as the Taruoctony, depicts Mithras with his left knee pressed down upon the beast’s arched back, while With his left hand the god pulls back the bull’s head by the nostrils, and cuts the creature’s throat with a knife. The posture of the bull is reminiscent of the waxing crescent moon, while the god himself (the eternal god born within the temporal realm), is like the rising sun.

Other creatures accompany the sacrifice, including a crab and scorpion attacking the bull’s genitals (castration motif), and a dog and serpent attacking the bull’s bleeding throat. To the left and right of the bull slaying scene stand the twin torch bearers, Cautes and Cautopates, dressed Persian style like Mithras, with Phrygian caps. Above Cautes, whose torch points upwards (towards the realm of life) is an image of sol, the sun, who is sometimes riding an ascending chariot, while above Cautopates, whose torch points downwards (towards the realm of death), is Luna, goddess of the moon, sometimes riding a descending chariot drawn by bulls. Luna is also often depicted wearing a lunar headdress reminiscent of bull horns, and it is surely no coincidence that Mithras pulls back the head of the bull, as if transfixed and staring directly towards the moon, while the god himself looks towards the sun.

In various iconic representations, both Mithras and Sol are shown together, and Mithras himself was called Deus Sol Invictus. In one scene Mithras and Sol are sitting together partaking in a meal, presumably of bull flesh. In another scene Sol kneels before Mithras, and it seems apparent that the sun derives it’s power from Mithras himself.

The combined lunar-solar aspects of the god, represented in the leontocephaline, are distinct in the Taruoctony, and there is no other evidence that Mithras himself was ever thought to be both the lunar bull who is slain, as well as the solar god who slays. We find a similar distinction in the Zoroastrian creation myth (see part one). However, in the ancient lore of the mythological victim the god was clearly both.

To get the code visit ocgfx and copy and paste it from there.

1. Create a new folder, and open up a text editor (Notepad), and copy (Ctrl+C) and paste (Ctrl+V) the template code. then save (Inside the new folder) the document as a .html file

2. To view the template open up your browser and go to File > Open (Open File in Fire Fox)

3. To create an external stylesheet copy and paste all the css contained in the <style> tags. Create another document and save (Inside the new folder), as style.css

Note: You do not need to use style tags in the external stylesheet.

Adding content to the template

All tags (elements), must be closed…

<p></p>
<blockquote></blockquote>
<div></div>

…or self closed

<br />
<hr />
<img src="" alt="" />

Text

1. All text should be contained in <p> (paragraph) tags.

<p>Example of a paragraph</p>

2. Quotes should be enclosed in both Blockquote and Paragraph tags

<blockquote><p>Example of a quote</p></blockquote>

Images

1. Image tags should contain the alt attribute, to give an alternative text description if the image fails to load.

<img src="http://img.jpg" alt="my image" />

2. Images should be enclosed in <div> tags.

<div><img src="http://img.jpg" alt="my image"/></div>

3. You can also add some caption text to the image, enclosed in <p> tags.

<div><img src="http://img.jpg" alt="my image" /><p>caption</p></div>

4. To align the image on the left of the page add:

<div><img class="imgfl" src="http://img.jpg" alt="my image" /><p>caption</p></div>

5. To align the image on the right of the page add:

<div><img class="imgfr" src="http://img.jpg" alt="my image" /><p>caption</p></div>

Navigation and side bar links

These links are treated as list items (<li>) inside ordered lists (<ol>). To add more links, add another list item to the list:

<ol>
<li><a href="">Link one</a></li>
<li><a href="">Link two</a></li>
<li><a href="">Link three</a></li>
<li><a href="">Another Link</a></li>
</ol>

If you are having any further difficulties, or want to modify the template, let me know

The religion of the Jewish people, as it is presented in the Biblical texts appears to of been very much in the hands of men, and largely viewed through their eyes. God is portrayed as exclusively masculine with titles such as ‘Lord’ (Deut 10:17), ‘Husband’ (Hosea 2:16), and ‘King’ (Isaiah 43: 15).

The priesthood who officiated the sacrifical system were exclusively male, and the preserevers of the written and oral tradition were also exclusively men, as shown in the Ethics of the Fathers (Beckerlegge, G ‘ed’, 2001, p.27). Already, in the foundations of Judaism, an imbalance can be perceived relating to the importance of the male sex over the female. A specific gender role is also seen to be placed (or imposed?) apon men that has given them control over religious matters that have been denied to women.

In questioning the Divine Authority of scripture by scholars in the nineteenth century, there was a move away from the orthodox interpretation of the Bible. This new attitude towards the Hebrew scriptures became part of the Jewish Reform Movement and has helped to open the doors for Jewish women such as Ellen. M Umansky, a Rabbi in the reform tradition. Umansky has expressed her dissatisfaction with a Judasim she views “as hopelessly patriarchal” and desires a Jewish religion that is of equal relevence to both men and women (Ibid, p.70).

The family unit is highly valued within Judaism as it is the seat of individual and collective well being for Jews everywhere (Unit 1-2, 2001, p.38).

Rabbinic Judasim has placed specific gender roles on both male and females that are to be ingrained from infancy within the family unit (Study Guides, 2000, p.62).

When a male child is eight days old he is circumcised. Circumcision is regarded as a mark of Jewish identity and symbolizes the covenant between God and Israel. The birth of a female child is celebrated with a thanksgiving service, where she is given a name and blessed as a member of Israel (Holm, J ‘ed’, 2001, p.120). The permanent mark of circumcision seems to place an emphasis on the male child that has no equal parallel for females. The Biblical texts also reflect an attitude of inequality between the birth of the two sexes, which only mention the birth of males as if the birth of females was of less importance to Israelite lineage (ibid, p.120).

The emphasis on the male can also be seen in another life-cycle ritual known as Bar Mitzvah, which celebrates the male passage into manhood. There is no female parallel within Orthodox Judaism, and only recently has the female equivelent Bat Mitzvah, been introduced into Reform Judaism (Study Guides, 2000, p.63). According to the Halakhah, the father is only responsible for the education of his sons but not daughters. This didn’t mean that women were forbidden to receive an education, Although in Europe Jewish education was only considered to be of value to men. However, the modern opinion holds that Jewish education is important for both men and women, and the acceptance of female Rabbis in the reform tradition since the early and mid-seventies appears to reflect this (Holm, J ‘ed’, 2001, p.124 & 139).

Marriage, together with the family, provides a stable environment for the continuation of Jewish religious values (ibid, p.126). According to Jewish law, a women is concidered to belong to her father until marriage and then the ‘ownership’ is passed to the husband. A wife does not literally become her husbands property, rather it reflects that she is exclusively with him and not with any other man. A women finally ‘owns’ herself through the death of her husband or divorce (ibid, p.127).

In the event of a man dying childless, the widow was permitted to marry her brother-in-law. Known as Yibbum (now forbidden), this law enabled the dead man to continue his family line through his brother, again expressing the importance of male lineage (ibid, p.126).

In Jewish law, divorce is a husband’s preogative. The primary cause for divorce is adultery which is defined solely in terms of the woman as the offending party (ibid, p.134-5).

Sexual relations between husband and wife are regulated by the women’s menstrual cycle. As a menstruating woman is concidered by Biblical law to be unclean during her period, all contact with women at this time is to be avoided. Rabbinic laws concerning menstruation are even more rigid than the Biblical texts, which were probably primarily concerned with maintaining temple purity. Although women have been known to seclude themselves voluntarily, laws concerning menstruation do not restrict women from activities within the synagogue (ibid, p.130).

Within the synagogue, and Judasim in general, women have been treated as religiously subordinate to men, and denied the status of leadership (ibid, p.138-9). Within the orthodox tradition, women in the United States are included in the synagogue worship, while in the U.K this is not the case, although they do, of course, attend the synagogue. Women are not included in the Minyan which is the requirement of ten men in constituting a synagogue. In Reform Judaism women have a more equal status and, as already mentioned, may be ordained as Rabbis, and fulfil other roles of leadership (ibid, p.138-9). Traditionally the obligation to observe the divine commandments, or Mitzvot, was more binding for men than for women. The duty of a wife towards her husband, family and household matters were seen to be in conflict with the obligation towards God and the Torah, and she was directed towards a more domestic role, as the spiritual head of the household (ibid’ p.136-38). Shlomo Deshen tells us that as a consequence of the restrictions placed on women in the synagogue, domestic rituals were of major importance to women. The lighting of the candles on a sabbath eve was of particular importance and Deshen describes the ritual as “a virtual symbol of female religious identity” (Beckerlegge, G, ‘ed’, 2001, p.71-2). The Dietary laws (Kashrut) would also be maintained by women as “the primary preparers” of Kosher food (study Guides, 2000, p.63). In the past, women have found themselves confined within their own homes, and even Jewish literature has remarked that “she is banished from people and confined to prison” (Holm, J, ‘ed’, 2001, p.133).

Today, women have much more freedom in social and religious life within Judaism and are free to choose a career in the secular world (ibid, p.133).

Bibliography

1. Beckerlegge, Gwilym ‘ed’, 2001 ‘The World Religions Reader 2nd Edition’ Routledge.
2. Holm, Jean ‘ed’, 2001 ‘Women in religion’ Continuum.
3. Open University Study Guides, 2000.
4. O.U Units 1-2 ‘Judaism’, 2001.

Since Vedic times, the religious climate of India has undergone many changes, and the living experiences of men and women throughout India’s long religious history have also been conciderably diverse.

Dispite being the product of a patriarchal society, the Rig-Veda, the oldest of Hinduism’s religious texts, displays a level of equality between the sexes. Religious study was open to both men and women, and a religious education was important as ritual knowledge was an indispensable part of life, with rituals often performed in partnership by married couples (Holm, ‘ed‘, 2001, p.59-60).

Marriage, although a religious ideal, appears to of been optional for women, and both sexes had freedom regarding the choice of marriage partners. the Samana festival provides us with an example of men and women associating without any gender division (Ibid, p.60). The Rig-Veda does reveal that male children wre desired over the birth of daughters, but nowhere else do we find that female children were undervalued (ibid, p.60). Widowhood was less stigmatic than in later times, and the opportunity to remarry the dead man’s brother was a possibility (ibid, p.60). Sati, so we are told was only symbolic.

The sexual equality in the early Vedic period can be seen to of degenerated in the later Brahmana texts as ritual practice became more specialized and woman were unable to fulfil a ritual function, such as the marriage rites of earlier times. Women were directed towards a more domestic role. The birth of sons can now be seen to be of much greater value than the birth of daughters. Ritual impurity surrounding the menstrual Cycle also recieved negative attain (ibid, p.61).
Women were subject to spiritual equality in the Upanishadic period when asceticism had risen as a religious ideal, but for men, rather than women. The role of women was seen entirely within the context of marriage which had become devalued as the religious ideal of Vedic times in favour of asceticism. If a wife accompanied her husband into the forest it would be for his needs rather than her own (Holm, J ‘ed‘ , 2001, p.61-63).

In the Hindu epics, the ideal of marriage is in one aspect seen in terms of a wife’s selfless devotion to her husband (Ibid, 63-66). Sharada Sugirtharaja points out that in patriarchal societies women are seen through men’s eyes and are defined according to what men ideally want women to be, and therefore, while there are strong images of women to be found in the classical literature of Hinduism, the emphasis tends to revert back to the overall needs of a man. This has been a problem for many women who desire independence in their own right and have found this reflected in goddesses such as Kali (ibid, p.66-7). The Dhamasastras, the Hindu legal texts (also known as the Law Code and Laws of Manu) were composed by Brahmin men who saw women as secondary citizens whose role in life was firmly planted within a domestic setting and in subjugation to men throughout their lives. In marriage a woman’s ‘religious life was largely centered on the needs of her husband to the point where her identity should idealy become enmeshed with his. As a mother, a woman was valued especially when her offspring was male. The legal texts permitted men to remarry, while for women this was denied (Holm, J ‘ed‘, 2001, p.70-1).
The Bhakti tradition, which centers on the devotion and worship of God, emerged between the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. It was accessible to all people regardless of social status. Women were not placed in a secondary role and could worship equally alongside men. The relationship between Deity and devotee was percieved as the ultimate love affair, where the God was male and the worshippers were symbolically female. Men would mentally transform themselves into females to strengthen their devotion. Bhakti transcended normal social attitudes towards specific gender roles within a religious setting (Ibid, p. 67).

In Tantrism, the divine is seen as both male and female, but formost as the independent Sakti, the active and imminent feminine principle from which the masculine receives its power. Patriarchal expectations of female gender do not apply within Tantrism. All women are seen as representations of Sakti. Also, the attitude towards menstruation as impure and polluting is reversed and menstruating women play an important part in Tantric ritual (ibid, p.72-74).

Over the past two centuries there have been efforts to emancipate women from certain oppressive social customs, such as widow burning, where a wife is expected to sacrifice herself (perform/become a Sati) on her husbands funeral pyre or face the grim alternative as a perpetual and socially rejected widow. The beginnings of these reform movements were formed through western attitudes towards what were seen as outdated barbaric practices, but eventually became internalized by Hindu’s who looked within their own culture and religious past for solutions (Holm, J ‘ed’, 2001, p.76).

The struggle for independence from British rule helped to create an environment for equality between the sexes. Gandhi encouraged women to transfer the traditional devotion they were expected to give to the husbands in marriage towards the fight for Mother India. Since independence, womens educational opportunities have greatly increased (ibid, p.77) and there have been attempts to establish women priests in a priesthood that remains male dominated (ibid, p.81).

Bibliography

1. Holm, Jean ‘ed’, 2001 ‘women in religion’ continuum.
2. Open University study gudes, 2001.

Beneath the Bodhi tree the future-buddha entered four subsequent states of meditation, and from these, he remembered his previous lives and gained understanding of the processes of Samsara that all forms of life are subject to. He saw that the cause of rebirth was ignorance which would only cease when the need for sense-pleasures were quenched. As his ignorance of the truth was dispelled he was set free, and seeing things as they truly are, he became an enlightened being. A Buddha.

After the Buddha had singlehandedly found the path that leads to freedom, he returned to his former ascetic companions and shared with them the truth (Dharma/Damma) of his discovery, at the deer park in Benares. This was the setting for his first sermon known as the Dhamma-cakka-pavattana sutta, which means ‘discourse on the setting in motion the wheel of truth’. The Buddha revealed the Four Noble Truths concerning Dukkha/Duhkha, a word, originally sanskrit, that can be translated as meaning ‘suffering’ or alternatively as ‘anguish’, ‘unsatisfactoriness’ or ‘ill’.

The first noble truth is that the nature of existence, as experienced by all living things is suffering. this truth was the cause of the Buddha’s initial agitation when he first encountered old age, disease, and death. Everything that is born is subject to decay and death and is therefore recognized as ‘Anicca’, that is, impermanent. within samsara all are fated to suffer this process repeatedly, not only in this world, but also in the other various levels of existence that can be both heavenly and hellish, the destination determined by an individuals particular karma. Greed, Hatred, and Delusion, being specific to the nature of samsara, are also states of suffering.

Both dukkha and anicca are categorized as two of the ‘three marks of conditioned existence’, the third being ‘Anatta’ or ‘no-self’. According to Buddhism the individual self is not really a ‘self’ at all but an illusionary construct of five aggregates known as Skhandhas/Skandas. these are;

1. Rupa (form)
2. Vedana (feeling)
3. Sanna (perception)
4. Sankaras (skilled/unskilled actions/tendencies)
5. Vinnana (consciousness)

It is these skandas, in interaction with one another, that are to be understood as being subject to samsara rather than the individual, who does not really exist.

In a Buddhist text known as Milinda’s Questions the body is likened to a chariot. Here, the monk Nagasena demonstates for the benefit of the inquiring King Milinda that as the individual parts of the ‘self’ do not contain the ‘self’ within themselves, then “How can there be a self?”, when the individual parts are viewed collectively? Likewise, the seperate parts of a chariot have no ‘chariot’ within them, so how is it that a chariot exists when the parts are connected? The answer is “there is no chariot” and similarly neither is there a self. the ‘self’ is merely a convenient label of no real substance (Horner, I.B ‘trans’, in Beckerlegge, 2001, p.349-51). And so, the individual is seen as anatta.

The second noble truth concerns the cause, or ‘Uprising’, of suffering. Dukkha is born from ignorance and perpetuated through our desire for sense-pleasures. Existence is perceived as a series of conditions that function within a wheel of cause and effect known as Paticcasamuppada, which means ‘Dependent Origination’ or ‘Conditional Arising’. It is all wrong desires that keep the wheel turning. As all wrong desires have adverse causes, they also have adverse effects, which in turn become causes of more forms of suffering. The Buddha regarded individuals to be “on fire” through their attachment to objects of desire (Horner, I.B ‘trans’, in Beckerlegge ,2001, p.344). In feeding the flames of the senses, we perpetuate the false belief that we are real, and as we persist in ‘Ever-Becoming’ samsara retains its awfulhold:

“If this is, that comes to be;
From the arising of this, that arise;”

“ However;
If this is not, that does not come to be;
From the stopping of this, that is stopped”

‘Majjhima-Nikaya 2.32′(Horner, B.I ‘trans’, in Zaehner, R.C, ‘ed’, 2001, p.277)

With the third noble truth the Dharma of Buddhism makes the transition from darkness to light as it reveals, optimistically, that there is an end to suffering. By dispelling ignorance and quenching the flames of sense-desire, the realm of conditional existence, along with all impermanence and suffering that distinquishes it, can be transcended:

There is an island which you cannot go beyond. It is a place of nothingness, a place of non-possession and of non-attachment. It is the total end of death and decay, and this is why i call it Nibbana (the extinquished, the cool).

‘Kappas Question in the Sutta-Nipata’ (Saddhatissa. H, in Beckerlegge, 2001, p.349)

The root meaning of Nirvana, or Nibbana, is to ‘blow out’ such as the blowing out of a fire. The word ‘skanda’ means ‘heap’ or ‘bundle’ and can refer to a bundle of wood. As already mentioned, the burning of individuals by their desire for sense-objects has them caught up in samsara and a state of ever-becoming. the skandas which constitute the self, or rather, the no-self, can be compared to a burning bundle of wood that needs to be extinquished. And when the desires for sense-objects are ‘blown out’ Nirvana is attained.

The fourth noble truth is the path that is to be followed if there is to be an end of suffering. It is the practice of Buddhism Itself, known as the Eight-Fold Way, which is often divided into three categories.

These are:

Wisdom

1) perfect understanding.

2) perfect resolve, which are both related to a correct knowledge and application of the Buddha’s teachings in the life of an individual.

Morality

3) perfect speech, that is, talking in a kind and truthful manner.

4) Perfect action by dealing honestly with others and avoiding
sense-pleasure.

5) perfect livelihood, that is, earning an honest living that
doesn’t exploit other human beings or cater for sense-pleasures.

Mental Discipline

6) Perfect effort, which is the development and maintenance
of skilled mental states and ridding oneself of unskilled
mental states.

7) perfect mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind and mental states

perfect concentration, which is to be acheived through the disipline
of ‘Jhana’, that is, meditation…

…The forth noble truth is also known as the Middle Way. Buddhist meditation should conform with the middle way, as reflected in the legend of the Buddha when he positioned himself beneath the tree of awakening. the mind needs to be balanced if the realm of extremes is to be transcended. the middle way lies “between the two extremes of self-indulgence…” as reflected in the person of Siddhartha the prince, “…and self-torture” as reflected in the person of Siddhartha the emaciated ascetic (Horner, I.B, in Zaehner R.C ‘ed’, 2001,p.271). The Hindu practice of extreme self-denial, that was, and continues to be performed by ascetics in the pursuit of Moksha/Mukti was rejected by the Buddha. Such overt zelousness is concidered to be without true value, as is indifference towards spiritual attainment.

However, individuals must apply themselves to the way of the Buddha, and are encouraged to investigate spiritual matters for themselves, and not blindly accept what a prestigious teacher may claim, out of respect. It is when you know the truth yourself, that it is to be accepted (Woodward, F.L ‘trans’, ‘Kalama Sutta’ in Beckerlegge, 2001, p.348). Also, the monastic lifestyle can be viewed as embodying the principle of the middle way. For two and a half millennia it has remained the prefered enviroment conducive to the attainment of Nirvana. Harvey observes that it lies between the extremes of a reclusive existence and the life of a brahmanic householder. Concerning the four noble truths, Cousins tells us that the first truth is to be ‘fully comprehended’; the second is to be ‘abandoned’; the third is to be ‘made visible’; the fourth is to be ‘brought into being’.

It is for the transformation from a negative to a positive state that the path of Buddhism is the be followed. It requires the rejection of what is unskilful and the cultivation of what is skillful, such as generosity, compassion for all beings, and wisdom (the opposites of greed, hatred, and delusion mentioned above). It is a path that leads to calm, balance and detatchment from desire, and the indescribable Nirvana that awaits beyond.

Bibliography

• Beckerlegge, Gwilym (Ed), 2001 ‘The world Religions Reader. 2nd Edition’ (routledge).
• Campbell, Joseph, 2000 ‘Oriental Mythology’ (Souvenir Press).
• Stryk, Lucien (Ed), 1968 ‘World of the Buddha:
  A reader – From the three baskets to modern Zen’ (Doubleday).
• Smith, Jonathan, Z (Ed), 1996 ‘The Harpercollins dictionary of Religion’.

I think we need to understand evil and sin as a state of imbalance. The word ‘sin’, in New Testament Greek, is Hamartano, which carries the meaning ‘to miss the mark’ (New Strong’s, 1996). Sin is the by-product of selfish desire, which springs into being when the self and its desires are not aligned with the Self and Desire of God. Imbalance left unchecked must result in destruction. The primeval imbalance, according to the Hebrew Scriptures, was the eating of the forbidden fruit in the eternal garden of God.

Apex of Good

The ultimate state of balance is total harmony/order.

Blessed is the man
who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked
or stand in the way of sinners
or sit in the seat of mockers.
But his delight is in the law of the
LORD,
and on his law he meditates day and night.
He is like a tree planted by streams
of water,
which yields its fruit in season
and whose leaf does not wither.
Whatever he does prospers… (Psalm 1:1-3 N.I.V)

Nadir of Evil

The ultimate state of imbalance is total dissolution.

…Not so the wicked!
They are like chaff
that the wind blows away.
Therefore the wicked will not stand
in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the
righteous. (Psalm 1:4-5 N.I.V)

Christians believe that Jesus is the only one capable of maintaining this balance.
Because he was without sin (the dividing wall between God and ourselves) his desire and God’s desire were perfectly attuned. The unity of Christ’s will and God’s will was demonstrated to us through Christ’s self-less (or even better, God-self-centred) sacrifice. Although he gave himself willingly, he was also put to death by us, and so, Jesus, altogether innocent of all sin and therefore the only true victim, had both an active and passive role in his own death. And in death, Jesus took upon himself all sin and through the indestructible and transforming nature of his Spirit, he took what was dead and made it alive. In Christ our sins are ‘covered’ (Hebrew concept of atonement) and we receive AT-ONE-MENT with God.

Concerning Jesus’ self-sacrifice on the cross there can be only two viable alternatives:

1. Evil defeated Jesus (no resurrection power)
2. Jesus defeated Evil (resurrection power)

the remaining alternative would be (I think) a cosmic stalemate, or a dualism of Good and Evil. Such a dualistic state is contradicted by the death of Christ (worst evil) because it is transformed into the life of Christ (the great good) which is eternal life. In Christ eternal life is indestructible. The power of death cannot touch it. Evil is conquered. And so, the deadly bite of the serpent frustrates itself.

Evil will slay the wicked;
The foes of the righteous will be
Condemned.
The LORD redeems his servants;
no-one will be condemned who take refuge in him. (Psalm 34: 21-22 N.I.V)

God is not ambivalent to evil. It was counteracted in the eternal creation and cast out. Our true home is the eternal creation. That God can take the greatest evil and miraculously transform it into the greatest good, is proved by Jesus’ historic death and resurrection, an event in myth which is directly linked to the primordial transgression.

Concerning the tree of good and evil, the Rabbi Dr J.H Hertz informs us that ‘Good and Evil’ is “a Hebrew idiom for all things” (the Pentateuch and Haftorahs, 1960, p.10) . In his letter to the church at Rome, Paul of Tarsus writes;

In all things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord. 8:37-39 N.I.V

Jesus has totally defeated evil, and those who choose to reside in him are safe from destruction. He has also given us his resurrection power, the Holy Spirit, so that we may be transformed into his image. Concerning the Spirit of God, St.Paul wrote;

So I say, live by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the sinful nature. For the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, and the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature. They are in conflict with each other, so that you do not do what you want. But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law. The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: Sexual immorality, impurity and debauchery; idolatry and witchcraft; hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions and envy; drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the Kingdom of God. But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control. Against such things there is no law. Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the sinful nature with its passions and desires. (Galatians 5:16-24. N.I.V)

In Paul’s letter to the Church at Colosse, he writes;

For this reason, since the day we heard about you, we have not stopped praying for you and asking God to fill you with the knowledge of his will through all spiritual wisdom and understanding. And we pray this in order that you may live a life worthy of the Lord and may please him in every way: bearing fruit in every good work, growing in the knowledge of God, being strengthened with all his power according to his glorious might so that you may have great endurance and patience, and joyfully giving thanks to the Father, who has qualified you to share in the inheritance of the saints in the kingdom of light. For he has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the son he loves, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins. (1:9-14 N.I.V)

Again, in 2 Peter we are told;

His divine power has given us everything we need for life and godliness through our knowledge of him who called us by his own glory and goodness. Through these he has given us his very great and precious promises, so that through them you may participate in the divine nature and escape the corruption in the world caused by evil desires.
For this very reason, make every effort to add to your faith goodness, knowledge; and to goodness knowledge; and to knowledge self control; and to self control perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love. For if you possess these qualities in increasing measure, they will keep you from being ineffective and unproductive in your knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. But if anyone does not have them, he is short sighted and blind, and has forgotten that he has been cleansed from his past sins.
…if you do these things, you will never fall, and you will receive a rich welcome into the eternal kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ. 1:3-11 N.I.V